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What is worst-case timing analysis

Many of your PC hardware people have probably faced similar problems when assembling a computer from different parts, and it seemed to work properly. But under some circumstances system crashes without any known reason. Even in my practice, I had a sound-card that works well, but time at the time, it just crashes, and then the computer hangs. Of course, I can blame drivers or operating systems, but there is another probability that there can some timing failures occur. Many complex productions around us may have many undefined failures due to a lack of timing worst-case analysis. Failures may occur due to power supply fluctuations, thermal changes, or other conditions. Worst-case analysis encounters all available information of condition variations that can affect the performance of components. The worst-case analysis shows if electronic design meets specifications under variable conditions like temperature, voltage, or other variables. Only detailed analysis can prove if the design will work reliably under all operating conditions. It is proved that it is much better to design reliable hardware than fix the problems later. In many ways, the worst-case analysis may be implemented in various manufacturing phases automatically. By including several simple tests may save lots of money…

Chemical effects of electricity

Electronics depend on chemistry more than you can imagine. To generate electricity, there are many methods used; one of them is chemical. Remember batteries, where electricity is generated because of chemical reactions inside the cell. In conductors like liquids and gases, electricity is carried not by electrons in solid constructions(copper, aluminum, etc.) but by ions – molecules with electric charges. Even non-distilled water contains enough ions to be conductive. Let’s go through several chemical effects of electricity. Electrolysis Electrolysis decomposes the liquid compound by passing an electric current through a liquid called an electrolyte(saltwater, copper sulfate, sulphuric acid). Electrolysis is used very widely in the industry, like electroplating metals, refining copper, and extraction of aluminum from ore. To make electrolysis happen, two conductors used cathode(-) and anode(-).

Circular buffers in DSP processors

I will not analyze what DSP processors are different from regular microcontrollers as many differences allow boosting performance in many specific tasks like filtering, FFT, etc. One thing is obvious that DSP processors have to perform mathematical calculations rapidly enough to get predictive results. The better result we want – the more processing power we need. We know that MCU is performing two main tasks: data manipulation and mathematical operations. But the fact is that it has to be done really fast. General-purpose microcontrollers aren’t optimized to perform these tasks effectively as microcontroller has to as much universal as possible to fit in many areas. In other words, flexibility reduces performance. DSP processors are more specialized microprocessors optimized for tas that they usually do – multiplication and addition. Let’s take the most common DSP routine FIR digital filter implementation. It takes several samples of signal x[] and produces output signal y[], modified by multiplying appropriate samples by coefficients an. y[n] = a0x[n]+a1x[n-1]+…+akx[n-k]

Automated electronic CAD systems overview

More and more design operations become automated. These changes give many benefits like effectiveness, minimal errors, and less routine operations to designers. Modern electronic equipment requires scrupulous planning as devices shrink to minimal sizes, operation power increases, and it fit its external design requirement. So designing is a very complex task where without smart CAD software would be almost impossible to do. When designing a new electronic device, you have to deal with several necessary areas to make the device a reliable and attractive device. All of these areas usually are done on a particular CAD system. The most common CAD-based electronic specific task are: Mixed Analog-digital device modeling; Programmable Logic modeling and synthesis; HF circuits and electromagnetic modeling; Functional modeling; PCB Design; Thermal modeling; Chip topology modeling. Each of these modeling and designing processes requires different skills and knowledge. Let’s go through each to see their specifics and what CAD systems are used to automate related tasks.

AVR analog comparator and avr-gcc example

An Analog comparator is a pretty simple peripheral, but it can give big benefits. Comparator module is included in all Mega series of AVR microcontrollers. Simply speaking, Comparator allows comparing voltage values applied to two pins of microcontrollers. The comparison results are a logical level, which can be read by the program(ACO- Analog Comparator Output bit). There is also the ability to generate an interrupt, which depends on the comparator resulting level. And more- timer T1 can capture this level what allows measuring the signal length of analog signals. To use pins as comparator inputs, they must be prepared and configured as input(DDRx=0), and pull-up resistors must be disconnected (PORTx=0). In some models like Atmega48x/88x/168x, Atmega165x, Atmega325x,3250x,645x/6450x, and Atmega640x/128x/1281x/2560x/2561x, there is the ability to disconnect digital buffers of AIN0 and AIN1 pins that allows the use of these pins only for analog signal input – this minimizes overall power consumption.

What is DebugWire interface

Debug wire is an interface that enables debugging AVR microcontrollers by using one wire. All new AVR microcontrollers with less than 16kByte memory have a built-in one-wire bidirectional debugging interface that allows debugging devices in real-time. Like the JTAG interface, DebugWIRE can handle full execution and program flow control. It also supports an unlimited number of breakpoints, adjusting memory contents. The good thing is that interface doesn’t require additional pins as only the RESET pin is used for debugging purposes.

Major programmer types for 8 bit AVR microcontrollers

AVR microcontrollers have many ways to be programmed. One type of adapters are used only to program AVR memory others are used to program and debug. AVRISP The most known and common programming adapter is AVRISP, which is the basic tool and can be used to program Flash, EEPROM memory, most of the fuses, lock-bits for probably all 8bit AVR MCU’s. The programmer connects to a computer via an RS232 serial interface powered from the target board with no need additional power supply. The programmer connects to the target board via one of two headers â€“ 6 or 10pin. AVRISP from Atmel Corporation is designed to work from AVRStudio as front end software and is upgradable. However, AVRISP is discontinued due to the newer adapter appearance – AVRISP MKII. There are cheap third party clones available. But most of them aren’t compatible with AVRStudio but work well with programs like PonyProg or AVRDUDE.

How to solder SMD at home even better-Part two

This is continuing of part one. The following advice is for how to solder SMD parts with improved technology. Soldering Oven isolation As an isolation material, their glass insulation can be used. In this case, glass insulation was packed in aluminum foil: Inspected improvement in heating speed: 0.95% without isolation; 1.50% with isolation only inside oven; 1.72% full isolation.

How to solder SMD at home-Part one

Soldering SMD parts isn’t a hard task, and there are many methods of doing this. Let’s go through several SMD soldering methods and examples. Method 1: using the soldering iron For this you will need: Good sight or magnifying glass. Better one and another; Soldering iron with small tip ~10W; solder wire with a diameter of about 0.6mm Steps to follow: cut solder wire in pieces in the length of element width:

Very simple IR detector that controls relay

This Infrared(IR) detector circuit is a simple light relay that triggers when infrared light is applied to phototransistor Q1. This device can be used in control systems. When infrared light is OFF, the Q1 transistor and relay K1 are normally closed. When the IR diode is transmitting IR light, phototransistor Q1 opens and thus relays K1 triggers because current starts flowing through the Q2 transistor. Construction can easily be modified when circuit output is connected to a microcontroller or another device. Sensitivity so the distance can be controlled by changing IR diode D1, using more sensitive phototransistor Q1, and adjusting the R2 resistor.